As anthropogenic interventions alter ecosystems, numerous primate species face challenges of habitat loss and increased human encounters. Despite these threats, certain macaque species exhibit remarkable adaptability, utilising modified habitats such as agroecosystems, plantations, and urban areas where they integrate human-derived food sources into their diets. The bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), endemic to peninsular India, exemplifies significant ecological flexibility and is found across diverse landscapes, including highly human-modified temple towns and major cities. Many ecologically-resilient primate species that were once perceived to be abundant and ubiquitously present, currently stand threatened. The proclivity of bonnet macaques to move towards human habitations thus makes it necessary to examine the nature of their interactions with humans as well as their behavioural and ecological adaptations in these settings.

My thesis investigates human-bonnet macaque interactions at a tourism site and a residential area in the city of Mumbai, India. To this end, I observed two groups of bonnet macaques – one ranging at a tourism site within the Sanjay Gandhi National Park and one within residential areas in its vicinity. I examined the activity budgets and substrate use of bonnet macaques at these sites using scan sampling, compared human-bonnet macaque interactions through sequence sampling, and investigated human attitudes towards and perceptions of synurbic bonnet macaque groups employing a semi-structured questionnaire survey.

The study revealed distinct behavioural adaptations of bonnet macaques in both sites. The substrate used at the tourism site was predominantly vegetation, reflecting the use of natural flora despite anthropogenic habitat modifications. Conversely, the group in the residential area showed heavy reliance on human-built structures, thereby underscoring the adaptive capabilities of bonnet macaques in urban settings and built environments. Human-macaque interactions differed significantly between tourism and residential habitat contexts. In tourism settings, interactions such as food grabbing and aggression, were initiated by macaques emphasising their assertiveness in seeking food or responding defensively. In residential areas, human-initiated interactions predominated, characterised by regular provisioning and efforts to manage macaque presence. Public perceptions towards macaques varied significantly between the two sites. At the tourism site, a higher level of tolerance was observed, possibly influenced by positive encounters and the Protected Area status of the location. Respondents in the residential areas demonstrated comparatively lower tolerance due to concerns over property damage and safety. However, some tolerance towards macaque presence persisted, often driven by cultural beliefs and empathy. Respondents expressed willingness to coexist if conflict concerns were addressed, reflecting a need for enhanced awareness and management strategies. Provisioning of macaques was a major concern in both areas with their diet predominantly consisting of anthropogenic food either acquired directly or indirectly. Feedback loops, driven by provisioning and resulting interactions, contribute to learned behaviours in macaques that may escalate conflicts and impact community perceptions in the future. Overall, the study underscores the adaptive behavioural strategies of bonnet macaques in response to differing environmental contexts shaped by human activities. It highlights the necessity for context-specific management approaches that consider both behavioural ecology and public perceptions. Effective management strategies could include targeted awareness campaigns, infrastructure modifications, and proactive engagement with local communities to mitigate negative interactions while promoting coexistence.