In human-dominated ecosystems around protected areas, wild ungulates usually co-occur with agricultural land use, and have ecological and socio-economic implications. This research investigated habitat use patterns in wild ungulates and community responses in the 17.5 km² landscape surrounding Bandipur Tiger Reserve (BTR), Karnataka, India, across five villages. Field surveys and social interviews were carried out between February and May 2025.

A grid-based sampling method (1 km² per grid) was employed with a single 500 m transect per cell, and this was replicated three times. Sightings and indirect signs of wild ungulates and domestic livestock were noted. Sign-based data were examined using single-season occupancy models and negative binomial regressions with covariates such as land-use type, vegetation structure, and distance from water, settlements, roads, and the tiger reserve boundary. Semi-structured interviews with 77 people were also undertaken to examine local perceptions and coping mechanisms.

Occupancy modelling indicated significant estimated occupancy for spotted deer (ψ = 0.97 ± 0.03; p = 0.69) and wild boar (ψ = 0.94 ± 0.04; p = 0.98), indicating widespread landscape use. Sambar had low occupancy (ψ = 0.12 ± 0.08), with detection in just two transects. Goat-sheep and cattle were ubiquitous, with goat-sheep having complete modelled occupancy (ψ = 1.00; p = 0.90) and cattle detected on all sites during each visit (ψ = 1.00).

Habitat use patterns differed among species. Spotted deer signs were much more frequent in fallow land with invasive vegetation (F(I)) (β = 1.36, p = 0.021) and marginally so in active agriculture (A) (β = 1.80, p = 0.079). Wild boar preferred F(I) weakly (β = 0.41, p = 0.055). Goat-sheep sign frequency was significantly reduced in F(I) (β = –0.56, p = 0.019). Vegetation structure also had an effect on deer habitat use: grass cover (β = 0.064, p = 0.014) and canopy cover (β = 0.197, p < 0.001) both had a positive effect on sign counts. Signs of spotted deer and wild boar decreased progressively at greater distances from water, forest, roads, and human settlements. Sambar habitat use had no strong relationships, possibly because of sparse detections. Distributions of livestock were also affected by proximity to water: cattle (β = –0.00642, p < 0.001) and goat-sheep (β = – 0.00554, p < 0.001) signs were more common close to water bodies. Encounter rates corroborated: cattle (22.43 signs/km) were the most common, followed by spotted deer (12.94 signs/km), wild boar (9.61 signs/km), goat-sheep (8.98 signs/km), and sambar (0.2 signs/km).

Interviews in the community indicated a mixed response. 45.5% responded negatively to wild boars because of crop damage, whereas 48% had a positive view of spotted deer. Sambar and other species were viewed neutrally by and large. While 86% believed in wildlife protection, 25% disliked the protection of wild boar. Only 45% favoured coexistence, often with conditions, whereas 32% were opposed.

Agricultural decisions were guided by forest proximity: 46% of the 250 m or less households discontinued cultivation of staple foods, compared to none beyond that distance (χ² = 59.0, p < 0.001). Farmers with smaller land holdings experienced more crop loss (mean = 59.4%) than larger ones (51.9%), with a significant inverse correlation (ρ = –0.351, p = 0.0074).

These results highlight the importance of conservation strategies that bring together species-specific habitat utilisation with local socio-economic conditions to foster coexistence between people and wildlife in a shared environment.